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Cruise collections, by their very definition, are evocations of travel and the elsewhere. For the 2019 collection, Maria Grazia Chiuri took us from the historical French town of Chantilly to the world of Mexican rodeo, in a fascinating feat of respectful and irreverent interpretation. Discover her designs in this show extract and click on.dior.com/cruise19 to discover more about the collection.
The Evolution of Chinese Religion: From Monotheism to Polytheism
There are few well known religions in China such as Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The belief in Oneness of God was there before the existence of religion in Chinese society. Chinese community believe the existence of one God which is Shang Di before the arise of Confucianism and Taoism philosophy. The Chinese historian, Sima Qian wrote in his book entitled Shi Ji state:“Shang Di is another name for Tian. The spirits do not have two Lords”[1]
Shang Di (上帝) or Tian (天) is the name of a God in Chinese community believed since a long time ago. It does not have any image, picture or statue in a form of idols. Furthermore, it is an entity that is not the same as human beings.
Chinese community understand it through characters of letters such as hanzi 上帝 and 天. Tian (天) symbolised the concept monotheism, due to the Chinese word character of hanzi for Tian (天) is a combination of two Hanzi characters which are Da (大) dan Yi ( 一). Da means the All-Mighty while Yi means Oneness. Two letters is formed for Tian which means the Sky and Heaven. It indicates the God is at the sky.
That is the reason why the ancient Chinese community worship one God and around the year 2000 BC - 800 BC, the doctrine of Shamanism and fortune teller was developed in China. Then the believes was influenced by the Taoism religion which came later on such as the usage of talisman and mantra to fight against the supernatural and binding spells in order to cure the one affected. But the earliest Taoism belief do not teach these particularly rituals.[2]
Existence of Confucianism and Taoism Philosophy
There were a lot of war and coup between small states during the classic era around 700 BC – 220 BC hence created the need towards political and strategy advice. However, they also focused on social development and the era which new leaders appeared such as Lao Zhi ( 604 BC – 531 BC) and Kongfu Zi (551 BC – 479 BC).[3]
Both of them brought their own philosophy for the purpose of social development. Both philosophy brought the believe that was well influenced even the concept of God was influenced by the concept of god in ancient Chinese community.
God term used between Lao zi and Kongfu Zi have a few differences mainly inside the form of characters letter of Hanzi and the definition of the letter. According to Lao Zi in his book entitled Dao De Ching used the term Dao (道) which indicates God.[4] Besides, according to Kongfu zi, he used the term Tian (天) inside the book to indicate God too. Both of them used the term which was used by the ancient Chinese community to described God. Even both terms for God was not made into image or idols. They believed that God is one and only.
Outside influence towards the concept of God
Buddhism came from India then entered into China and expanded around the year in 240 BC which is the era under the ruling of King Asoka in India. Buddhism remain in China in first 10 AD.[5] There are various types of Buddhism over there such as Theravada, Yogacara, Vajrayana and Mahayana.
The teachings of Lao zi and Kongzi also developed and expanded in China. Even though there was innovation in the teachings. The teaching that was brought by Lao zi or known as Taoism gave a huge impact to the shamanism doctrine which was by the ancient Chinese community while the teaching of Kongfu zi did not impacted the Shamanism influence.
Syncretism or mixing of and believed occurred in the teaching of Taoism. The evolution of Taoism from philosophy to religion in the year between 20 BC – 600 AD.
A well known Taoist figure called Zhang Daoling. He became first person who embed and strengthened the system into Taoism whereas the founder, Lao Tze did not introduced the religion system according to Zhang Daoling. Taoism made history when it became a religion through the formation of religious leader, set of rituals, scriptures and a lot of followers.
Taoism firstly became well known in the era of dynasty Han (25 AD-219 AD) when shamanism influenced was less practiced in the castle. In year 150 AD, the kings built a temple of kings specifically to performed the official ceremony as an honour towards the purification of Lao zi. Aligning with the belief on purification thus followed by the need to increase the rank of Laozi to the highest level of God.
During the era of dynasty Tang (618 AD - 907 AD), the royal family indicted the ancestry of Laozi for having the same family name, Li 李. Therefore, Taoism have achieved an official status under his ruling. Moreover, Gaozong King make Dai De Jing scriptures as one of the compulsory subject for the people who set for the public services examination.
If it is measure in terms of historical Taoism practices, the figure that is worthy to be given credit as the founder of Taoism is Zhang Daoling.[7] Zhang Ling is his real name and He was born in South of China in a place which strong shamanism was at that time.[8]
According to the legend, he succeed in finishing the whole classic text of Dao de Jing.[9]. During his adulthood, he went on exploring the Sichuan territory to undergo the ascetic life and to seek knowledge on religion. In the year 142 AD, he professed of an event that occurred which changes his life. A god appeared from the sky then came face to face with him in an awake state (yaqazhah), then gifted him with the power to do miracles and elevate his title to Tianshi (Heaven Master). The god is said to be the resemblance of Laozi and is known as the elder of the highest greatness (太上老君).
Jumping-off point from the event, Zhang Daoling have established the movement of Tianshi Dao (School of Heaven Master) in Sichuan territory. It also known as Wudoumi Dao 五斗米道 (Way of The Five Pecks of Rice) because the criteria of acceptance of a member is by giving tax five dou (1 dou =10kg) rice or items which have the same quantity.
Besides, Tianshi Dao has an well organized organization structure such as hierarchy of religious leader, record system of supernatural, talisman, moral principal, studying the classic text of Dao de Jing and etc. Furthermore, in the earliest era, it consist of twenty four states ruled under the Sichuan territory.
Under the leadership of his grandchild, Zhang Lu the movement later became militancy thus launching a rebel in the year 189 AD but they surrendered peacefully to Cao Cao (曹操). Cao Cao (曹操) was a warlord in the year (155AD – 220AD). Therefore, the movement indirectly exist until now.
Taoism brought by Zhang Daoling was easily accepted due to the fact that the people at that time are strong followers of shamanism and animism. The movement lead by Zhang Daoling have influence the Taoism we know today. As an example, the religious rituals whereby Zhang Daoling popularized the usage of talisman which is still practice until today. Usually the necklace is in the form of a yellow paper and written using Chinese characters, the meaning are kept as secret.[10]
Even the belief of worshipping gods and goddess was embedded into Taoism to a point where they included many idols, gods and goddess in their worship. Whereas the reality of earliest leader did not introduce the such practices and beliefs.
Mixing of Beliefs Occurred
Lastly, the Chinese community incorporated all four beliefs into their practices. There are times where they practice Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism and also Chinese traditional beliefs. Besides that, they also practice Feng Shui and etc.
This mixing of beliefs is called as syncretism among the religions. According to them, all the four religion is compensate with each other. If they want the understanding of philosophy and moral, they will refer to Confucianism and if they want spiritual and balance between two worlds, they will refer to Taoism. These are the way they practiced the religions until now.
Conclusion
It is recorded in history that the ancient Chinese community worship one God that does not have an image nor given birth to but later on the practiced of worshipping Gods and Goddesses were added on into Taoism. Even though, the founder himself did not introduce this way of worship. It was created by the people later on.
Lastly, Chinese community consider that all religion that exist till the classic era is important and is practiced synchronously.
Key Note
[1] Refer to Sima Qian (-). Shi Ji, volume 28, book 6, pg 624
[2] Refer to Eva Wong, (2011). Taoism An Essential Guide, Shambhala Publications, London, pg 11-19
[3] Ibid, pg 20-30/ refer to Cao Dawei & Sun Yanjing, (2010). China’s History, China Intercontinental Press, Beijing, pg 44-45
[4] Refer to the scriptures of Dao Te Ching chapter 4: Xiang Di Zhi Xian, chapter 25: Dao De Zhen Mian Mu, chapter 39: Dao De Gen Ben. And refer to scriptures of Kongfu zi dalam The Anaclets 3: 13, 9: 5, 16: 8, 14: 35
[5] Refer to Milon Nandy, (1996). The Profund Teachings of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism & Shintoism, Eurasia-Pasific Books, Ampang, pg 34
[6] Refer to Eva Wong, (2011). Taoism An Essential Guide, Shambhala Publications, London, pg 34
[7] Refer to Herman, J. (2013). Taoism For Dummies. Mississauga, Canada: John Wiley & Sons Canada pg 75/ refer to Palmer, M. (2000). T’ung Shu. Kuala Lumpur: Vinpress, pg 82.
[8] Refer to Eva Wong, (2011). Taoism An Essential Guide, Shambhala Publications, London, pg 34
[9] Refer to Palmer, M. (2000). T’ung Shu. Kuala Lumpur: Vinpress, pg 82
[10] Refer to Milon Nandy, (1996). The Profund Teachings of Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism & Shintoism, Eurasia-Pasific Books, Ampang, pg 59
MRM's R&D Team
Voices of Photography 攝影之聲
Issue 21: 影像刊誌考
A Study of Photo Publications
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在本期專題裡，我們埋首雜誌報刊堆中，透過梳理台灣、中國和香港攝影雜誌的出版歷程，作為初探東亞影像刊誌的歷史迴路及攝影文化脈動連結的支點，試圖疊映出這個影像時代過去與現在的考驗和變貌。
走過日本殖民與國府戒嚴的重重歷史，歷經戰後攝影發展的流變，台灣影像雜誌的存在與承續，彷若一趟崎嶇蜿蜒的旅程——陳佳琦追蹤台灣攝影刊物的沓雜步履，瞭望島嶼影像出版百年來的起落波潮；張世倫重訪七〇年代發行的《ECHO》英文漢聲雜誌，追述這份台灣民俗調查攝影先鋒刊物的歷史脈絡與文化影響；梁秋虹考掘日治期間出版的「黃色刊物」，剖析台灣女性作為視覺消費商品的殖民結構與政治關係；李威儀蒐集台灣戒嚴年代官方編印發行的「今日」系列政宣畫刊，探查國府曾經透過出版啟動的對外影像心戰。
在對岸中國，長久以來由政府當局全面管控的媒體與出版體系，塑造了「具中國特色」的攝影媒介生態——顧錚回看自1949年至今、在文革到改革開放帶來的政經變化下，攝影雜誌所承載的理想、現實與時代肌理；此外，何伊寧書寫近年中國獨立刊物的多樣風景，體現這些在限制中試圖開拓道路的紙本與網路同人誌的某種可能與想像，為中國攝影注入了不同以往的革新感與清新氣息。放眼香港，李泳麒則細數自戰後以來發行的眾多香港攝影刊物，揭示早期攝影雜誌與左派團體的隱密關係，以及面對商業市場的掙扎取捨，回溯這些影像刊誌曾經點燃的火花。
本期Artist’s Showcase單元，我們專訪台灣藝術家侯怡亭，在她的作品《歷史刺繡人》系列中，藉由刺繡、勞動生產與殖民時期歷史照片的交疊展現，反射出社會集體意識灌輸的性別設定與身體感。在「Q」單元裡，法國攝影雜誌《The Eyes》創辦人文森．馬熙哈希與我們分享這份新的半年刊的編輯概念以及他對攝影的前線觀察；同時，我們也造訪巴黎視覺藝術空間「LE BAL」，一探這個位在紅燈區、前身曾是酒館舞廳的展演場，如何變成新穎的歐洲影像文化據點。
我們在籌備本期專題、記述這些影像刊物生命史之時，特別能夠感受到催生與維持一份刊物背後所需付出的心血與懷抱的理想，在此我們向眾出版人們致敬。出版的路上時而快意、時而蹌踉，我們也想再次感謝親愛的《攝影之聲》讀者給予這份刊物持續的動力，謝謝你與我們一起共度這段雜誌時光。
In this issue of VOP, we combed through and compiled numerous photo publications from Taiwan, China and Hong Kong. Using this as a fulcrum in our primary examination of the historical development and cultural ripples of photo publications in East Asia, we tried to map the past and current challenges and transformation of this age of images.
Through the Japanese colonization and martial law eras, the existence and evolution of post-war photo publications in Taiwan is not unlike a winding journey. Chia-Chi Chen traces the complex development and the ups and downs of Taiwanese photographic journals in the last century; Shih-Lun Chang revisits ECHO, a magazine published in the 1970s, and recounts the historical context and cultural influence of this pioneering publication on Taiwanese folklore and documentary photography. Chiu-Hong Liang takes a look at “adult publications” from the Japanese colonial period and examines the relationship between politics and the colonial structure of objectifying Taiwanese women as a form of visual consumer product. Wei-I Lee puts together the Today series of KMT government propaganda materials published during the martial law era and explores how the government engaged in psychological warfare through the use of such publications.
Over in China, the media and publication industry, which has long been heavily controlled by the state, has given birth to a photographic media ecology with “Chinese characteristics." Gu Zheng takes a look at how political and economic changes since the Cultural Revolution and the Reform Era gave shape to the expectations, reality and texture that photo publications have had to bear since 1949. Yi-Ning He also explores how independent publications in China, in an attempt to blaze a trail in a much-restricted environment, with their dedication to possibility and imagination, have brought with them a new sense of innovation and a breath of fresh air into the scene of Chinese photography. Turning to Hong Kong, Wing-Ki Lee showcases Hong Kong’s post-war photo magazines and recounts their impact on the society as he reveals the close relationship between early photo publications and leftist groups and their struggles with the commercial market.
In this issue’s “Artist Showcase”, I-Ting Hou tells us how her work Li̍k-sú Tsiam-tsílâng reflects gender definition and sensory perceptiveness instilled by the social collective consciousness through the overlapping historical photographs of embroidery and labor productivity from the colonial period. In the “Q” segment, Vincent Marcilhacy, the founder of French photography magazine The Eyes, shares with us his editorial concept for this new magazine and his first-hand observations of photography. At the same time, we also pay a visit to Le Bal, a visual art space in Paris, and see its transformation from a haven of drinks and dance to a new cultural stronghold in Europe.
While preparing for this volume of VOP, we had renewed respect for all the work and effort these publications put in as we articulate their histories. Hence, we would like to pay tribute to our fellow publishers. The same time, we also want to express our gratitude to our beloved VOP readers for giving us the reason to persevere with this publication. The road of publishing is at times smooth-sailing, and at times discouraging. Thank you for always staying with us on this journey.
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Voices of Photography 攝影之聲
www.vopmagazine.com
