📜 [專欄新文章] ZKP 與智能合約的開發入門
✍️ Johnson
📥 歡迎投稿: https://medium.com/taipei-ethereum-meetup #徵技術分享文 #使用心得 #教學文 #medium
這篇文章將以程式碼範例,說明 Zero Knowledge Proofs 與智能合約的結合,能夠為以太坊的生態系帶來什麼創新的應用。
本文為 Tornado Cash 研究系列的 Part 2,本系列以 tornado-core 為教材,學習開發 ZKP 的應用,另兩篇為:
Part 1:Merkle Tree in JavaScript
Part 3:Tornado Cash 實例解析
Special thanks to C.C. Liang for review and enlightenment.
近十年來最強大的密碼學科技可能就是零知識證明,或稱 zk-SNARKs (zero knowledge succinct arguments of knowledge)。
zk-SNARKs 可以將某個能得出特定結果 (output) 的計算過程 (computation),產出一個證明,而儘管計算過程可能非常耗時,這個證明卻可以快速的被驗證。
此外,零知識證明的額外特色是:你可以在不告訴對方輸入值 (input) 的情況下,證明你確實經過了某個計算過程並得到了結果。
上述來自 Vitalik’s An approximate introduction to how zk-SNARKs are possible 文章的首段,該文說是給具有 “medium level” 數學程度的人解釋 zk-SNARKs 的運作原理。(可惜我還是看不懂 QQ)
本文則是從零知識證明 (ZKP) 應用開發的角度,結合電路 (circuit) 與智能合約的程式碼來說明 ZKP 可以為既有的以太坊智能合約帶來什麼創新的突破。
基本上可以謹記兩點 ZKP 帶來的效果:
1. 擴容:鏈下計算的功能。
2. 隱私:隱藏秘密的功能。
WithoutZK.sol
首先,讓我們先來看一段沒有任何 ZKP 的智能合約:
這份合約的主軸在 process(),我們向它輸入一個秘密值 secret,經過一段計算過程後會與 answer 比對,如果驗證成功就會改寫變數 greeting 為 “answer to the ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything”。
Computation
而計算過程是一個簡單的函式:f(x) = x**2 + 6。
我們可以輕易推出秘密就是 42。
這個計算過程有很多可能的輸入值 (input) 與輸出值 (output):
f(2) = 10
f(3) = 15
f(4) = 22
…
但是能通過驗證的只有當輸出值和我們存放在合約的資料 answer 一樣時,才會驗證成功,並執行 process 的動作。
可以看到有一個 calculate 函式,說明這份合約在鏈上進行的計算,以及 process 需要輸入參數 _secret,而我們知道合約上所有交易都是公開的,所以這個 _secret 可以輕易在 etherscan 上被看到。
從這個簡單的合約中我們看到 ZKP 可以解決的兩個痛點:鏈下計算與隱藏秘密。
Circuits
接下來我們就改寫這份合約,加入 ZKP 的電路語言 circom,使用者就能用他的 secret 在鏈下進行計算後產生一個 proof,這 proof 就不會揭露有關 secret 的資訊,同時證明了當 secret 丟入 f(x) = x**2 + 6 的計算過程後會得出 1770 的結果 (output),把這個 proof 丟入 process 的參數中,經過 Verifier 的驗證即可執行 process 的內容。
有關電路 circuits 的環境配置,可以參考 ZKP Hello World,這裡我們就先跳過去,直接來看 circom 的程式碼:
template Square() { signal input in; signal output out; out <== in * in;}template Add() { signal input in; signal output out; out <== in + 6;}template Calculator() { signal private input secret; signal output out; component square = Square(); component add = Add(); square.in <== secret; add.in <== square.out; out <== add.out;}component main = Calculator();
這段就是 f(x) = x**2 + 6 在 circom 上的寫法,可能需要時間去感受一下。
ZK.sol
circom 寫好後,可以產生一個 Verifier.sol 的合約,這個合約會有一個函式 verifyProof,於是我們把上方的合約改寫成使用 ZKP 的樣子:
我們可以發現 ZK 合約少了 calculate 函式,顯然 f(x) = x**2 + 6 已經被我們寫到電路上了。
snarkjs
產生證明的程式碼以 javascript 寫成如下:
let { proof, publicSignals } = await groth16.fullProve(input, wasmPath, zkeyPath);
於是提交 proof 給合約,完成驗證,達到所謂鏈下計算的功能。
最後讓我們完整看一段 javascript 的單元測試,使用 snarkjs 來產生證明,對合約的 process 進行測試:
對合約來說, secret = 42 是完全不知情的,因此隱藏了秘密。
publicSignals
之前不太清楚 publicSignals 的用意,因此在這裡特別說明一下。
基本上在產生證明的同時,也會隨帶產生這個 circom 所有的 public 值,也就是 publicSignals,如下:
let { proof, publicSignals } = await groth16.fullProve(input, wasmPath, zkeyPath);
在我們的例子中 publicSignals 只有一個,就是 1770。
而 verifyProof 要輸入的參數除了 proof 之外,也要填入 public 值,簡單來說會是:
const isValid = verifyProof(proof, publicSignals);
問題來了,我們在設計應用邏輯時,當使用者要提交參數進行驗證的時候,publicSignals 會是由「使用者」填入嗎?或者是說,儘管是使用者填入,那它需不需要先經過檢查,才可以填入 verifyProof?
關鍵在於我們的合約上存有一筆資料:answer = 1770
回頭看合約上的 process 在進行 verifyProof 之前,必須要檢查 isAnswer(publicSignals[0]):
想想要是沒有檢查 isAnswer,這份合約會發生什麼事情?
我們的應用邏輯就會變得毫無意義,因為少了要驗證的答案,就只是完成計算 f(42) = 1770,那麼不論是 f(1) = 7 或 f(2) = 10,使用者都可以自己產生證明與結果,自己把 proof 和 publicSignals 填入 verifyProof 的參數中,都會通過驗證。
至此可以看出,ZKP 只有把「計算過程」抽離到鏈下的電路,計算後的結果仍需要與鏈上既有的資料進行比對與確認後,才能算是有效的應用 ZKP。
應用邏輯的開發
本文主要談到的是 zk-SNARKs 上層應用邏輯的開發,關於 ZKP 的底層邏輯如上述使用的 groth16 或其他如 plonk 是本文打算忽略掉的部分。
從上述的例子可以看到,即使我們努力用 circom 實作藏住 secret,但由於計算過程太過簡單,只有 f(x) = x**2+6,輕易就能從 answer 反推出我們的 secret 是 42,因此在應用邏輯的開發上,也必須注意 circom 的設計可能出了問題,導致私密訊息容易外洩,那儘管使用再強的 ZKP 底層邏輯,在應用邏輯上有漏洞,也沒辦法達到隱藏秘密的效果。
此外,在看 circom 的程式碼時,可以關注最後一個 template 的 private 與 public 值分別是什麼。以本文的 Calculator 為例,private 值有 secret,public 值有 out。
另外補充:
如果有個 signal input 但它不是 private input,就會被歸類為 public。
一個 circuit 至少會有一個 public,因為計算過程一定會有一個結果。
最後,在開發的過程中我會用 javascript 先實作計算過程,也可以順便產出 input.json,然後再用 circom 語言把計算過程實現,產生 proof 和 public 後,再去對照所有 public 值和 private 值,確認是不是符合電路計算後所要的結果,也就是比較 javascript 算出來的和 circom 算出來的一不一樣,如果不一樣就能確定程式碼是有 bug 的。
參考範例:https://github.com/chnejohnson/circom-playground
總結
本文的程式碼展現 ZKP 可以做到鏈下計算與隱藏秘密的功能,在真實專案中,可想而知電路的計算過程不會這麼單純。
會出現在真實專案中的計算像是 hash function,複雜一點會加入 Merkle Tree,或是電子簽章 EdDSA,於是就能產生更完整的應用如 Layer 2 擴容方案之一的 ZK Rollup,或是做到匿名交易的 Tornado Cash。
本文原始碼:https://github.com/chnejohnson/mini-zkp
下篇文章就來分享 Tornado Cash 是如何利用 ZKP 達成匿名交易的!
參考資料
概念介紹
Cryptography Playground
zk-SNARKs-Explainer
神奇的零知識證明!既能保守秘密,又讓別人信你!
認識零知識證明 — COSCUP 2019 | Youtube
應用零知識證明 — COSCUP 2020 | Youtube
ZK Rollup
動手實做零知識 — circom — Kimi
ZK-Rollup 开发经验分享 Part I — Fluidex
ZkRollup Tutorial
ZK Rollup & Optimistic Rollup — Kimi Wu | Medium
Circom
circom/TUTORIAL.md at master · iden3/circom · GitHub
ZKP Hello World
其他
深入瞭解 zk-SNARKs
瞭解神秘的 ZK-STARKs
zk-SNARKs和zk-STARKs解釋 | Binance Academy
[ZKP 讀書會] MACI
Semaphore
Zero-knowledge Virtual Machines, the Polaris License, and Vendor Lock-in | by Koh Wei Jie
Introduction & Evolution of ZK Ecosystem — YouTube
The Limitations of Privacy — Barry Whitehat — YouTube
Introduction to Zero Knowledge Proofs — Elena Nadolinski
ZKP 與智能合約的開發入門 was originally published in Taipei Ethereum Meetup on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
👏 歡迎轉載分享鼓掌
同時也有1部Youtube影片,追蹤數超過6萬的網紅Herman Yeung,也在其Youtube影片中提到,HKDSE Mathematics 數學天書 訂購表格及方法︰ http://goo.gl/forms/NgqVAfMVB9 課程簡介︰ https://youtu.be/Rgm7yUVG9cY ----------------------------------------------------...
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📜 [專欄新文章] Uniswap v3 Features Explained in Depth
✍️ 田少谷 Shao
📥 歡迎投稿: https://medium.com/taipei-ethereum-meetup #徵技術分享文 #使用心得 #教學文 #medium
Once again the game-changing DEX 🦄 👑
Image source: https://uniswap.org/blog/uniswap-v3/
Outline
0. Intro1. Uniswap & AMM recap2. Ticks 3. Concentrated liquidity4. Range orders: reversible limit orders5. Impacts of v36. Conclusion
0. Intro
The announcement of Uniswap v3 is no doubt one of the most exciting news in the DeFi place recently 🔥🔥🔥
While most have talked about the impact v3 can potentially bring on the market, seldom explain the delicate implementation techniques to realize all those amazing features, such as concentrated liquidity, limit-order-like range orders, etc.
Since I’ve covered Uniswap v1 & v2 (if you happen to know Mandarin, here are v1 & v2), there’s no reason for me to not cover v3 as well ✅
Thus, this article aims to guide readers through Uniswap v3, based on their official whitepaper and examples made on the announcement page. However, one needs not to be an engineer, as not many codes are involved, nor a math major, as the math involved is definitely taught in your high school, to fully understand the following content 😊😊😊
If you really make it through but still don’t get shxt, feedbacks are welcomed! 🙏
There should be another article focusing on the codebase, so stay tuned and let’s get started with some background noise!
1. Uniswap & AMM recap
Before diving in, we have to first recap the uniqueness of Uniswap and compare it to traditional order book exchanges.
Uniswap v1 & v2 are a kind of AMMs (automated market marker) that follow the constant product equation x * y = k, with x & y stand for the amount of two tokens X and Y in a pool and k as a constant.
Comparing to order book exchanges, AMMs, such as the previous versions of Uniswap, offer quite a distinct user experience:
AMMs have pricing functions that offer the price for the two tokens, which make their users always price takers, while users of order book exchanges can be both makers or takers.
Uniswap as well as most AMMs have infinite liquidity¹, while order book exchanges don’t. The liquidity of Uniswap v1 & v2 is provided throughout the price range [0,∞]².
Uniswap as well as most AMMs have price slippage³ and it’s due to the pricing function, while there isn’t always price slippage on order book exchanges as long as an order is fulfilled within one tick.
In an order book, each price (whether in green or red) is a tick. Image source: https://ftx.com/trade/BTC-PERP
¹ though the price gets worse over time; AMM of constant sum such as mStable does not have infinite liquidity
² the range is in fact [-∞,∞], while a price in most cases won’t be negative
³ AMM of constant sum does not have price slippage
2. Tick
The whole innovation of Uniswap v3 starts from ticks.
For those unfamiliar with what is a tick:
Source: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/tick.asp
By slicing the price range [0,∞] into numerous granular ticks, trading on v3 is highly similar to trading on order book exchanges, with only three differences:
The price range of each tick is predefined by the system instead of being proposed by users.
Trades that happen within a tick still follows the pricing function of the AMM, while the equation has to be updated once the price crosses the tick.
Orders can be executed with any price within the price range, instead of being fulfilled at the same one price on order book exchanges.
With the tick design, Uniswap v3 possesses most of the merits of both AMM and an order book exchange! 💯💯💯
So, how is the price range of a tick decided?
This question is actually somewhat related to the tick explanation above: the minimum tick size for stocks trading above 1$ is one cent.
The underlying meaning of a tick size traditionally being one cent is that one cent (1% of 1$) is the basis point of price changes between ticks, ex: 1.02 — 1.01 = 0.1.
Uniswap v3 employs a similar idea: compared to the previous/next price, the price change should always be 0.01% = 1 basis point.
However, notice the difference is that in the traditional basis point, the price change is defined with subtraction, while here in Uniswap it’s division.
This is how price ranges of ticks are decided⁴:
Image source: https://uniswap.org/whitepaper-v3.pdf
With the above equation, the tick/price range can be recorded in the index form [i, i+1], instead of some crazy numbers such as 1.0001¹⁰⁰ = 1.0100496621.
As each price is the multiplication of 1.0001 of the previous price, the price change is always 1.0001 — 1 = 0.0001 = 0.01%.
For example, when i=1, p(1) = 1.0001; when i=2, p(2) = 1.00020001.
p(2) / p(1) = 1.00020001 / 1.0001 = 1.0001
See the connection between the traditional basis point 1 cent (=1% of 1$) and Uniswap v3’s basis point 0.01%?
Image source: https://tenor.com/view/coin-master-cool-gif-19748052
But sir, are prices really granular enough? There are many shitcoins with prices less than 0.000001$. Will such prices be covered as well?
Price range: max & min
To know if an extremely small price is covered or not, we have to figure out the max & min price range of v3 by looking into the spec: there is a int24 tick state variable in UniswapV3Pool.sol.
Image source: https://uniswap.org/whitepaper-v3.pdf
The reason for a signed integer int instead of an uint is that negative power represents prices less than 1 but greater than 0.
24 bits can cover the range between 1.0001 ^ (2²³ — 1) and 1.0001 ^ -(2)²³. Even Google cannot calculate such numbers, so allow me to offer smaller values to have a rough idea of the whole price range:
1.0001 ^ (2¹⁸) = 242,214,459,604.341
1.0001 ^ -(2¹⁷) = 0.000002031888943
I think it’s safe to say that with a int24 the range can cover > 99.99% of the prices of all assets in the universe 👌
⁴ For implementation concern, however, a square root is added to both sides of the equation.
How about finding out which tick does a price belong to?
Tick index from price
The answer to this question is rather easy, as we know that p(i) = 1.0001^i, simply takes a log with base 1.0001 on both sides of the equation⁴:
Image source: https://www.codecogs.com/latex/eqneditor.php
Let’s try this out, say we wanna find out the tick index of 1000000.
Image source: https://ncalculators.com/number-conversion/log-logarithm-calculator.htm
Now, 1.0001¹³⁸¹⁶² = 999,998.678087146. Voila!
⁵ This formula is also slightly modified to fit the real implementation usage.
3. Concentrated liquidity
Now that we know how ticks and price ranges are decided, let’s talk about how orders are executed in a tick, what is concentrated liquidity and how it enables v3 to compete with stablecoin-specialized DEXs (decentralized exchange), such as Curve, by improving the capital efficiency.
Concentrated liquidity means LPs (liquidity providers) can provide liquidity to any price range/tick at their wish, which causes the liquidity to be imbalanced in ticks.
As each tick has a different liquidity depth, the corresponding pricing function x * y = k also won’t be the same!
Each tick has its own liquidity depth. Image source: https://uniswap.org/blog/uniswap-v3/
Mmm… examples are always helpful for abstract descriptions 😂
Say the original pricing function is 100(x) * 1000(y) = 100000(k), with the price of X token 1000 / 100 = 10 and we’re now in the price range [9.08, 11.08].
If the liquidity of the price range [11.08, 13.08] is the same as [9.08, 11.08], we don’t have to modify the pricing function if the price goes from 10 to 11.08, which is the boundary between two ticks.
The price of X is 1052.63 / 95 = 11.08 when the equation is 1052.63 * 95 = 100000.
However, if the liquidity of the price range [11.08, 13.08] is two times that of the current range [9.08, 11.08], balances of x and y should be doubled, which makes the equation become 2105.26 * 220 = 400000, which is (1052.63 * 2) * (110 * 2) = (100000 * 2 * 2).
We can observe the following two points from the above example:
Trades always follow the pricing function x * y = k, while once the price crosses the current price range/tick, the liquidity/equation has to be updated.
√(x * y) = √k = L is how we represent the liquidity, as I say the liquidity of x * y = 400000 is two times the liquidity of x * y = 100000, as √(400000 / 100000) = 2.
What’s more, compared to liquidity on v1 & v2 is always spread across [0,∞], liquidity on v3 can be concentrated within certain price ranges and thus results in higher capital efficiency from traders’ swapping fees!
Let’s say if I provide liquidity in the range [1200, 2800], the capital efficiency will then be 4.24x higher than v2 with the range [0,∞] 😮😮😮 There’s a capital efficiency comparison calculator, make sure to try it out!
Image source: https://uniswap.org/blog/uniswap-v3/
It’s worth noticing that the concept of concentrated liquidity was proposed and already implemented by Kyper, prior to Uniswap, which is called Automated Price Reserve in their case.⁵
⁶ Thanks to Yenwen Feng for the information.
4. Range orders: reversible limit orders
As explained in the above section, LPs of v3 can provide liquidity to any price range/tick at their wish. Depending on the current price and the targeted price range, there are three scenarios:
current price < the targeted price range
current price > the targeted price range
current price belongs to the targeted price range
The first two scenarios are called range orders. They have unique characteristics and are essentially fee-earning reversible limit orders, which will be explained later.
The last case is the exact same liquidity providing mechanism as the previous versions: LPs provide liquidity in both tokens of the same value (= amount * price).
There’s also an identical product to the case: grid trading, a very powerful investment tool for a time of consolidation. Dunno what’s grid trading? Check out Binance’s explanation on this, as this topic won’t be covered!
In fact, LPs of Uniswap v1 & v2 are grid trading with a range of [0,∞] and the entry price as the baseline.
Range orders
To understand range orders, we’d have to first revisit how price is discovered on Uniswap with the equation x * y = k, for x & y stand for the amount of two tokens X and Y and k as a constant.
The price of X compared to Y is y / x, which means how many Y one can get for 1 unit of X, and vice versa the price of Y compared to X is x / y.
For the price of X to go up, y has to increase and x decrease.
With this pricing mechanism in mind, it’s example time!
Say an LP plans to place liquidity in the price range [15.625, 17.313], higher than the current price of X 10, when 100(x) * 1000(y) = 100000(k).
The price of X is 1250 / 80 = 15.625 when the equation is 80 * 1250 = 100000.
The price of X is 1315.789 / 76 = 17.313 when the equation is 76 * 1315.789 = 100000.
If now the price of X reaches 15.625, the only way for the price of X to go even higher is to further increase y and decrease x, which means exchanging a certain amount of X for Y.
Thus, to provide liquidity in the range [15.625, 17.313], an LP needs only to prepare 80 — 76 = 4 of X. If the price exceeds 17.313, all 4 X of the LP is swapped into 1315.789 — 1250 = 65.798 Y, and then the LP has nothing more to do with the pool, as his/her liquidity is drained.
What if the price stays in the range? It’s exactly what LPs would love to see, as they can earn swapping fees for all transactions in the range! Also, the balance of X will swing between [76, 80] and the balance of Y between [1250, 1315.789].
This might not be obvious, but the example above shows an interesting insight: if the liquidity of one token is provided, only when the token becomes more valuable will it be exchanged for the less valuable one.
…wut? 🤔
Remember that if 4 X is provided within [15.625, 17.313], only when the price of X goes up from 15.625 to 17.313 is 4 X gradually swapped into Y, the less valuable one!
What if the price of X drops back immediately after reaching 17.313? As X becomes less valuable, others are going to exchange Y for X.
The below image illustrates the scenario of DAI/USDC pair with a price range of [1.001, 1.002] well: the pool is always composed entirely of one token on both sides of the tick, while in the middle 1.001499⁶ is of both tokens.
Image source: https://uniswap.org/blog/uniswap-v3/
Similarly, to provide liquidity in a price range < current price, an LP has to prepare a certain amount of Y for others to exchange Y for X within the range.
To wrap up such an interesting feature, we know that:
Only one token is required for range orders.
Only when the current price is within the range of the range order can LP earn trading fees. This is the main reason why most people believe LPs of v3 have to monitor the price more actively to maximize their income, which also means that LPs of v3 have become arbitrageurs 🤯
I will be discussing more the impacts of v3 in 5. Impacts of v3.
⁷ 1.001499988 = √(1.0001 * 1.0002) is the geometric mean of 1.0001 and 1.0002. The implication is that the geometric mean of two prices is the average execution price within the range of the two prices.
Reversible limit orders
As the example in the last section demonstrates, if there is 4 X in range [15.625, 17.313], the 4 X will be completely converted into 65.798 Y when the price goes over 17.313.
We all know that a price can stay in a wide range such as [10, 11] for quite some time, while it’s unlikely so in a narrow range such as [15.625, 15.626].
Thus, if an LP provides liquidity in [15.625, 15.626], we can expect that once the price of X goes over 15.625 and immediately also 15.626, and does not drop back, all X are then forever converted into Y.
The concept of having a targeted price and the order will be executed after the price is crossed is exactly the concept of limit orders! The only difference is that if the range of a range order is not narrow enough, it’s highly possible that the conversion of tokens will be reverted once the price falls back to the range.
As price ranges follow the equation p(i) = 1.0001 ^ i, the range can be quite narrow and a range order can thus effectively serve as a limit order:
When i = 27490, 1.0001²⁷⁴⁹⁰ = 15.6248.⁸
When i = 27491, 1.0001²⁷⁴⁹¹ = 15.6264.⁸
A range of 0.0016 is not THAT narrow but can certainly satisfy most limit order use cases!
⁸ As mentioned previously in note #4, there is a square root in the equation of the price and index, thus the numbers here are for explantion only.
5. Impacts of v3
Higher capital efficiency, LPs become arbitrageurs… as v3 has made tons of radical changes, I’d like to summarize my personal takes of the impacts of v3:
Higher capital efficiency makes one of the most frequently considered indices in DeFi: TVL, total value locked, becomes less meaningful, as 1$ on Uniswap v3 might have the same effect as 100$ or even 2000$ on v2.
The ease of spot exchanging between spot exchanges used to be a huge advantage of spot markets over derivative markets. As LPs will take up the role of arbitrageurs and arbitraging is more likely to happen on v3 itself other than between DEXs, this gap is narrowed … to what extent? No idea though.
LP strategies and the aggregation of NFT of Uniswap v3 liquidity token are becoming the blue ocean for new DeFi startups: see Visor and Lixir. In fact, this might be the turning point for both DeFi and NFT: the two main reasons of blockchain going mainstream now come to the alignment of interest: solving the $$ problem 😏😏😏
In the right venue, which means a place where transaction fees are low enough, such as Optimism, we might see Algo trading firms coming in to share the market of designing LP strategies on Uniswap v3, as I believe Algo trading is way stronger than on-chain strategies or DAO voting to add liquidity that sort of thing.
After reading this article by Parsec.finance: The Dex to Rule Them All, I cannot help but wonder: maybe there is going to be centralized crypto exchanges adopting v3’s approach. The reason is that since orders of LPs in the same tick are executed pro-rata, the endless front-running speeding-competition issue in the Algo trading world, to some degree, is… solved? 🤔
Anyway, personal opinions can be biased and seriously wrong 🙈 I’m merely throwing out a sprat to catch a whale. Having a different voice? Leave your comment down below!
6. Conclusion
That was kinda tough, isn’t it? Glad you make it through here 🥂🥂🥂
There are actually many more details and also a huge section of Oracle yet to be covered. However, since this article is more about features and targeting normal DeFi users, I’ll leave those to the next one; hope there is one 😅
If you have any doubt or find any mistake, please feel free to reach out to me and I’d try to reply AFAP!
Stay tuned and in the meantime let’s wait and see how Uniswap v3 is again pioneering the innovation of DeFi 🌟
Uniswap v3 Features Explained in Depth was originally published in Taipei Ethereum Meetup on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
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function calculator 在 海恩奶油 Hein Cream Facebook 的最讚貼文
嘩嘩我發現這篇帖子我存了做草稿,趕快分享給DSE的大家~
6條實用programme 分享:
A5. 一元二次方程及聯立二元一次方程(I) (Quadratic equations and simultaneous linear equations in 2 unknowns I)
A32. 三次函數因式分解 (Factorization of cubic function)
E6. 直線方程 (Equation of straight line)
E8. 圓形的圓心及半徑 (Centre and radius of a circle)
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程式3)三角形解 (Solution of triangle)�, 我不喜歡佢會CLEAR DATA, 但又好喜歡佢防止我B題計立體(a)一失足成千古恨,好中意用COS RULE 搵角時可以即出ANS.�CAL機有位可以入, 驗算都好!
function calculator 在 Herman Yeung Youtube 的最佳解答
HKDSE Mathematics 數學天書 訂購表格及方法︰ http://goo.gl/forms/NgqVAfMVB9
課程簡介︰ https://youtu.be/Rgm7yUVG9cY
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DSE 數學 Core 天書 D 第1堂 (共2小時1分鐘) https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
DSE 數學 Core 天書 D 第2堂 (共2小時14分鐘) https://youtu.be/P5lqM4Bxb14?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
DSE 數學 Core 天書 D 第3堂 (共2小時8分鐘) https://youtu.be/vVnyHSIHXJM?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
仿 Past Paper 系列 (DSE Probability 概率) (共1小時43分鐘) https://youtu.be/QOrwlA830pk?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
仿 Past Paper 系列 (DSE nCr, nPr) (共2小時29分鐘) https://youtu.be/tN6LGFfkcTc?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
DSE 數學 Core 天書 D 第4堂 (共2小時11分鐘) https://youtu.be/iPQbFbDM988?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
Past Paper Demo (太多,無法估計) https://youtu.be/41cdF_BqxME?list=PLzDe9mOi1K8rpwKQvMwGSscFQo9vNiJEs
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DSE 數學 Core 天書 D 的內容︰
1 -- More about Probability 進階概率
2 -- Permutation (nPr) & Combination (nCr) 排列與組合
3 -- Statistics & Measures of Dispersion 統計及離差之量度
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HKDSE 數學 Core 各天書 的內容︰ https://www.facebook.com/hy.publishing/photos/a.312736375489291.68655.198063650289898/933817946714461/?type=3&theater
HKDSE 數學 Core 特別快車班
28堂 (共7本天書) 完成整個 HKDSE 數學 Core
(中一至中六) 要考的所有課題,
適合任何考 HKDSE 的同學上課 (中四至中六都合適)
(p.s. Herman Yeung 所有天書,中英對照)
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