規範派 vs. 描述派,假議題的新出路
紐約時報刊載了超過三十年的語言專欄On Language,於2011年2月喊停,其實我真的不懂爲何要停。以下這篇2012年紐時以辯論形式發表於2012年的文章,留言數高達400多則,顯示有興趣、關心(英語)語言的讀者大有人在。
這篇辯論文應該是"prescriptive descriptivism"或"prescriptive descriptivist“這樣的新稱呼最早在網路上出現的地方,出自辯論一方的Greene(他是美國人,如今是經濟學人雜誌Johnson語言專欄的作者之一)。看到prescriptive descriptivist這詞,真的很高興,即便是七年多的後知後覺。多年來,一直覺得語言用法的規範派與描述派這兩種井水不犯河水又互婊以求自我感覺良好的陣營,讓我覺得格格不入,因爲一旦自稱描述派,就好像失去了說某某說法「文法錯誤」的權利(這其實是誤解描述派的立意),但我顯然早已看穿強硬規範派的荒謬與不實,更不可能以此自居。所以,我很開心終於找到一個標籤,讓我加入prescriptive descriptivist陣營,認爲語言用法應該與時代俱進,並有適當規範,但堅拒當今臺灣基本國民教育中的英文老師應該還在灌輸的那套數十年不改的死硬規範文法。
// Pinker saw no conflict in being a descriptivist and speaking of “correct” grammar. I consider myself a “prescriptive descriptivist,” and have no qualms with the word “error.” Even the “no such thing as an error” linguists whom you cite ring-fence their statements with things like “for the most part” (Trudgill and Andersson, 1990). They mean that “when expressing themselves as they intend to,” not hurried, tired, distracted or drinking, native speakers do not make mistakes. Instead, they would say that those speakers constitute their own idiolects (individual ways of speaking) and when their speech patterns line up, they constitute stable dialects, and when enough dialects overlap, they constitute languages. I would never say “native speakers can’t make an error,” but I do see what they’re aiming for: a correction of the centuries-old view that error is everywhere because most people are ignorant.
https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2012/09/27/which-language-and-grammar-rules-to-flout
同時也有10000部Youtube影片,追蹤數超過2,910的網紅コバにゃんチャンネル,也在其Youtube影片中提到,...
「constitute用法」的推薦目錄:
- 關於constitute用法 在 翻譯這檔事 Facebook 的精選貼文
- 關於constitute用法 在 Eric's English Lounge Facebook 的最讚貼文
- 關於constitute用法 在 Alexander Wang 王梓沅英文 Facebook 的最佳解答
- 關於constitute用法 在 コバにゃんチャンネル Youtube 的最佳解答
- 關於constitute用法 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的最讚貼文
- 關於constitute用法 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的最讚貼文
- 關於constitute用法 在 [文法] Made up of/ Made of 及一些被動用法- 看板Eng-Class 的評價
- 關於constitute用法 在 Verb Master - #高中英文7000字Comprise & Be comprised of 的評價
- 關於constitute用法 在 comprised of用法的菜單和評價,FACEBOOK、PTT - 火鍋涮涮 ... 的評價
- 關於constitute用法 在 comprised of用法的菜單和評價,FACEBOOK、PTT - 火鍋涮涮 ... 的評價
constitute用法 在 Eric's English Lounge Facebook 的最讚貼文
[詞彙區別] constitute, compose, consist of, comprise, account for, make up 的區別
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詞彙區別: http://wp.me/p44l9b-16B
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在寫作的時候,有些同學為了避免重複使用相同的詞彙,卻選用了意義上不盡相同的詞,而無法精確地表達出自己所想傳達的想法。這問題很可能來自於考生平時在語言學習上過於依賴中英翻譯,因此在不夠了解某些詞彙精準的用法的情況下,很容易造成讀者的誤解。
為了幫助同學增加詞彙量並且精確地在口說和寫作上使用這些字,我建議同學們不要一開始的時候就死記硬背一群同義詞彙 (e.g. decline, decrease, diminish, dwindle, reduce, alleviate) 。雖然如此做會快速幫同學累積對這些詞的認知,可是認知都會停留在模糊階段。建議同學先熟悉其中一兩個單詞以後在開始累積相關的同義詞彙,也應該用搭配詞跟片語加上完整的例句和短文來輔助自己對單詞的理解。同時同學們也應該在使用這些單詞之前先查查字典,更進一步了解這些詞彙的使用方式。
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1. constitute: to constitute something is to form a whole, especially of dissimilar components: Love and hate can constitute a balanced relationship.
constitute 所“構成”的事物在屬性和特徵上,亦或在組織上,與組成成分是一致的。
-Seven days constitutes a week (七天構成一個星期。).
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2. Compose: to compose means the same as to constitute, but implies that the components have something in common: Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
在表示“由……材料構成”時,見於被動語態;在用於主動語態時,一般它所表示的“構成”或“組成”總包含著融合為一,而且主語或者是複數名詞或者是集體名詞。
-Concrete is composed of cement, sand and gravel mixed with water. (混凝土由水泥、砂、石子與水摻和而構成。 )
-Mere facts, when badly stated, do not compose a good book. (僅僅有資料,如果陳述得很糟糕,並不能組成一本好書)
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3. account for: 說明(原因、理由等); 導致,引起; (在數量、比例上); 占 (e.g. This group accounted for 60% of the population.)
(在數量、比例上)占
These products, in total, account for about 80% of all our sales (這些產品總共約占我們全部銷售額的80%。).
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4. make up: 組成 to combine together to form something [= constitute]:
-Women make up only a small proportion of the prison population. 女人只佔監獄人口的一小部分。
-The committee is made up of representatives from every state (委員會由每個州的代表組成的。).
-Children makes up only 10% of the population (兒童只佔人口的10%。).
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5. consist of: to consist of something is to be made up of it: A lethal dose of nerve agent VX consists of only 10 milligrams.
consist of 的含義與被動語態的 compose 相同
-Though the costume consists only of a sheet, it was very effective. (雖然那件化裝服裝僅由一條床單組成,但效果很好。)
-This group consists of men, women, and children.
(這個小組由男人,女人和孩子們組成的。).
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6. comprise: to comprise something has the same meaning as to consist, often implying that the whole is regarded from the point of view of its individual parts: The chain is comprised of many links, and is only as strong as its weakest.
comprise 在表示“構成”時,其內涵是“包括”或“覆蓋”*
-The committee comprises men of widely different views (這個委員會由見解甚為懸殊的人組成。).
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從這些動詞的意思來看,若要表示數個個體或項目組成一個整體時,我們可用 compose 或 constitute。
England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland compose/constitute the United Kingdom.
(英格蘭、威爾斯、蘇格蘭和北愛爾蘭組成了聯合王國。)
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若要表示一個整體是由個數個體或項目所組成時,我們可用 comprise* 或 consist of / be composed of 。
(compose 經常用於被動態,而以 be composed of 的型式出現,意思和用法跟 consist of 完全一樣。)
-The United Kingdom comprises*/consists of/is composed of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.
(聯合王國是由英格蘭、威爾斯、蘇格蘭和北愛爾蘭所構成)
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詳細的說明: http://www.learnerhall.org/2012/12/consist-of-compose-contain-comprise.html
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*在這幾個字當中,僅 comprise 兼具其他字的意思,但它也是最麻煩、最讓人困擾的字。英語 評論人士強烈反對 comprise 被用作 constitute 的意思以及 comprise 以被動態形式 be comprised of 來表示 consist of 的意思,所以對於 Fifty states comprise the United States. (五十個州組成了美國) 和 The United States is comprised of fifty states. (美國是由五十個州所組成) 這樣的句子結構,他們期期以為不可,而堅持只有 The United States comprises fifty states. 才是唯一正確的用法。但他們反對的這兩種用法其實早已是不 折不扣的標準英語,一些新版的字典甚至將 be comprised of 堂而皇之地列為片語,如 The course is comprised of ten core modules. (這門課是由 10 個核心單元組成)。然而,在公說公有理,婆說婆有理,各有堅持的情況下,在此建議:若使用 comprise 會讓你覺得心虛或沒把握,那麼不妨使用它的同義詞,也就是沒有爭議的 constitute, consist of 或 be composed of 來代替之。
*An interesting history of sense development concerning the word comprise has caused confusion, if not hate for the word itself. The most common mistake is confusing consist and comprise with each other. To say A lethal dose of nerve agent VX comprises of only 10 milligrams, is wrong because it is not analyzed from each separate component or milligram, but rather as a whole dose. In fact, there is a lot of skepticism and criticism of the word “comprise” all together. “None of the many neat schemes purporting to describe its correct use seems accurately to describe the way Standard English users actually employ comprise.” (Bartleby) Thus it is suggested to use constitute and/or compose as active verbs, while consists and/or includes as passive. However, if your use of the word can clearly indicate its context, separate from the its other accepted use, choosing a substitute is not necessary.
Also, ”Comprises” is "better" grammar than ”is comprised of.” “The whole comprises multiple parts” is better than, “The whole is comprised of multiple parts.” Even better though is, “Multiple parts comprise the whole."
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Sources:
http://www.bartleby.com/68/3/1403.html
http://bulo.hjenglish.com/question/33021/
http://blog.cybertranslator.idv.tw/archives/2590
http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/dictionaries/english/data/d0081813.html
http://www.learnerhall.org/2012/12/consist-of-compose-contain-comprise.html
http://everything2.com/title/consist%252C+comprise%252C+constitute%252C+or+compose
More sentences:
-The pie chart consists of/comprises of the percentages of four different fuel sources used in electricity production.
-Electricity (that is) produced with coal composed/constituted/accounted for 50% of the total electricity (that is)produced.
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contain vs. include:
Contain: Something is considered to be within something else.
The toy contains many small moving parts. ->The small moving parts are a part of the toy.
Include: Something is added to something else, possibly containing it, possibly not.
-This toy includes batteries. -> The batteries are not a part of the toy. They just come with the toy.
constitute用法 在 Alexander Wang 王梓沅英文 Facebook 的最佳解答
★ 你還只會用「國中英文單字」說英文、寫英文作文嗎?★
常常有英文程度已經很不錯的人跟我說覺得英文寫作很難。通常診斷這樣的人(如同在面試英文老師般),我會跟他說「你計時寫一篇英文作文讓我改看看。這樣的人,通常文法會錯很多口說因講話速度快偵查不出的小錯誤、用詞因為缺乏海量collocations (搭配詞)的學習導致很多「中文邏輯/思維湊出的合文法用法」、一句一句間的邏輯關係不夠緊密外,最常見的狀況,也是台灣學生普遍有的現象 (a pervasive/ubiquitous phenomenon) 就是只會用國中英文單字寫作,偶爾跑出一個最近從外語雜誌/新聞背的單字,但 因為缺乏在「有充分語境下的搭配字/用法」學習,而用得生硬無比。下面50個TOEFL/GRE字的用法,全部以這些字常出現的語境而呈現,希望大家能將他們抄下來記下來,這樣的學習,長年累積一定程度會大有增進。
[1] An imaginary adversary 假想敵
[2] To play the connoisseur 充當行家
[3] to be bigoted to one's opinion 堅持己見
[4] a deluge of fire 火海 a deluge of rain 傾盆大雨
[5] to do sth with a sense of detachment 以超脫的心態做~
[6] to get the ascendancy 佔上風
[7] to constitute a barrier to progress 造成進步的阻礙
[8] an economic calamity 經濟上的大災害
[9] reactionary elements 反動份子
[10] to be on the horns of a dilemma 面對進退維谷的情勢
[11] to be at enmity with sb 和~不和
[12] to win by a fluke 僥倖地獲勝
[13] to bring sb into disrepute 使~聲譽掃地
[14] to be against one's inclination 違背~的本意
[15] to make a scrutiny into 仔細徹查
[16] a speech full of banal platitudes 一充滿陳腔濫調的演講
[17] the vicissitudes of life 人生的起起伏伏
[18] to be at the zenith of sth 在~的全盛時期
[19] the potential pitfalls of sth ~所隱藏的危機/危險
[20] a reconnaissance airplane 偵察機
[21] arbitrary arguments 強詞奪理的議論
[22] an ambiguous answer 模棱兩可的回答
[23] to be adamant in opposition 反對立場堅定
[24] to be abstinent from alcohols 節制喝酒
[25] an abstruse theory 深奧難懂的理論
[26] a circumlocutory excuse 迂迴的藉口
[27] an inclement weather 惡劣的天氣
[28] a bleak prospect 前途黯淡
[29] an arduous employee 勤奮的員工
[30] a brusque refusal 斷然無禮的拒絕
[31] a boisterous commercial area 喧鬧的商業地帶
[32] a benign tumor 良性的腫瘤
[33] a chronic grumbler 一天到頭在埋怨發牢騷的人
[34] to give a compendious presentation 做簡明簡短的報告
[35] an avid reader 喜歡看書的人
[36] an acrimonious denunciation 辛辣的譴責
[37] a canny politician 精明的政客
[38] to be avaricious of wealth 貪財
[39] a compelling / convoluted argument 有說服力/複雜難懂的論據
[40] ephemeral pleasures/joys 轉瞬即逝的歡樂
[41] a discursive speech 散亂沒有重點的演講
[42] a conspicuous error 明顯的錯誤
[43] a fertile mind 想像力豐富的頭腦
[44] to have an exuberant imagination 擁有豐富的想像力的
[45] the fickle world of fashion 多變的時尚世界
[46] complimentary tickets 免費贈送的票
[47] three hours of feckless negotiations 三小時毫無結果的談判
[48] a foolhardy decision 有勇無謀的決策
[49] exacting terms 嚴苛的條件
[50] a curt reply 唐突草率的回應
constitute用法 在 コバにゃんチャンネル Youtube 的最佳解答
constitute用法 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的最讚貼文
constitute用法 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的最讚貼文
constitute用法 在 Verb Master - #高中英文7000字Comprise & Be comprised of 的推薦與評價
舉Comprise為例,這是一個高級的字,第一次在美國講的時候,我老闆Brett Moyer眼睛亮起來,他想不到我會用 先講標準用法. Comprise有兩種意思 ... <看更多>
constitute用法 在 [文法] Made up of/ Made of 及一些被動用法- 看板Eng-Class 的推薦與評價
1.第一個問題如題,請問made of跟made up of的差別?
我google大都數人都是用前者
2.第二個問題,組合相關的片語,到底要不要用被動式(consist of / compose /
contain / comprise / constitute / include/made of),我看敘述除了
“ consist of” 和 “comprise” 沒有被動式,其他都可以用主、被動。
請問是這樣嗎? 可以再多給點詳細的規則嗎?
3.第三個問題,跟標題沒什麼相關,我前日看變形金剛4的trailer,發現一個台詞,
是有關於被動,台詞如下{You have no idea what you involve(d?) with.}
上面句子如果是被動,不是應該What you are involved with嗎?
我對這involve了解程度大概是通常是用在被動,有錯煩請大大們更正
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